AS English Language ENGB1
Language & Gender:
In preparing for this topic candidates should study how gender is represented and reproduced in the everyday texts that surround us, for example in advertising, fiction and non-fiction texts etc. Candidates should also study how gender is performed by language users in interactions, for example in single-sex and mixed-sex encounters.
There are two different types of Language and Gender questions you could be asked about: representations of gender and gender in action. For example, magazine articles, adverts and books all include representations of gender which are usually stereotypical, and not what males and females are really like. It's the perception of a gender difference, not a real gender difference. Transcripts (spontaneous speech) will show you how gender differences affect language (not if the discourse is planned, however).
A distinction you must understand:
A distinction you must understand:
Female:
1. of women: relating or belonging to women or girls 2. biology of the sex that produces offspring: relating or belonging to the sex that produces sex cells gametes that fuse with male sex cells during sexual reproduction |
Feminine:
1. conventionally associated with women: conventionally thought to be appropriate for a woman or girl 2. attributed to women: considered to be characteristic of women |
Does being female affect a person's language, or is it merely the attitude towards feminine that make us think there is a difference?
GENDER THEORY
Difference Theory
In sociolinguistics, difference theory is a theory in the area of language and gender which examines the effect that gender has on language use. A main proponent of the theory is sociolinguist Deborah Tannen, whose work, especially her 1990 book You Just Don't Understand, is often cited in the discussion of the theory and is considered to be the main reason for its popularisation. Difference theory is often compared to the earlier theories of deficit and dominance theory, and like these theories has been subject to a number of criticisms.
Difference theory, as postulated by Tannen, is generally summarised into six categories, each of which pairs a contrasting use of language by males and females.
Difference theory, as postulated by Tannen, is generally summarised into six categories, each of which pairs a contrasting use of language by males and females.
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Women:
Men:
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What you must understand, is that Tannen's theory has its flaws. Deborah Cameron can prove Tannen's idea that 'women talk too much,' is merely a myth... and as Dale Spender puts it, it perhaps stems from the idea that in an ideal world, women wouldn't talk at all... Do you think that Tannen's beliefs sound as though they stem from gender stereotypes?
Additional research has been carried out in reference to the DIFFERENCE debate:
Christine Howe
Ann Weatherall
Pilkington did research into all female and all male conversation in a bakery over a period of nine months. He found:
Additional research has been carried out in reference to the DIFFERENCE debate:
Christine Howe
- Men have strategies for gaining power.
- Men are much more likely to respond to what is being said, keen to put their views across.
- This makes it harder for the listener to participate in the conversation.
- Women are more active listeners. They use minor interjections, such as "uh huh" and "oh really" (back-channeling).
- The differences between male and female conversation begins at socialisation (ages 3-4).
Ann Weatherall
- Women's talk is co-operative.
- Men's talk is competitive.
- Women are more likely to use hedging, "sort of" "kind of"...
- Women speak for less time and are less likely to interrupt.
- Females use more tag questions
Pilkington did research into all female and all male conversation in a bakery over a period of nine months. He found:
- Women talk to affirm solidarity and maintain social relationships.
- Women focus on feelings, personal anecdotes and relationships.
- Women support, build on each others' points and complete others' utterances
- Women agree frequently.
- Men find long pauses (thinking time) acceptable.
- Men frequently disagree and challenge others' points.
- Their conversation is competitive to a point of verbal abuse. They take part in verbal sparring, often using mock insults.
NOTE: You don't have to agree with the above research - making reference to them in the exam (e.g. that they're generalised, that they're dated) would also get you marks. You must understand that the exam question is only one example of male and female conversation - there's no proof that it's representative.
Dominance Theory
After linguists stated that there is a difference, William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins wrote a book called Women's Language Or a Powerless Language? (1980):
O'Barr and Atkin's research is interesting in that it appears to suggest that it is not so much differences in the sexes' language, but context. This theory is known as the dominance theory: if there is a difference in language, it is because males have always dominated in both the home and workplace, and females have assumed the domestic roles.
- They studied the language of the courtroom and found female lawyers to be assertive, interrupt, everything that Pilkington argued for males.
- They also found that witnesses of both sexes would use Robin Lakoff's weak "female" language.
- They concluded that these weak language traits are actually a "powerless language" rather than a "female language".
O'Barr and Atkin's research is interesting in that it appears to suggest that it is not so much differences in the sexes' language, but context. This theory is known as the dominance theory: if there is a difference in language, it is because males have always dominated in both the home and workplace, and females have assumed the domestic roles.
Robin Lakoff (1975) was a believer in this to some extent. She combined elements of dominance and deficiency (another theory that claims women's language is weaker because it's EXPECTED to be weaker...'women don't swear' being a common assumption) and created a set of female characteristics:
- Women hedge.
- Women use super polite forms: "Would you please...?" "I'd really appreciate it if..."
- Women speak in italics (use more prosodic features): It's soooo nice...
- They use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable...
- They use modal verbs: should, would...
- Overuse qualifiers. "I think that..."
- They use mitigated responses and hidden directives.
- They have special lexis for things like colours and cloth.
- They avoid coarse language and expletives.
- Women can't tell jokes.
Lakoff claims that women displayed 'weak' language as a result of patriarchal society - historically, women have never had any power, and when faced with opportunities to state their opinion, they grow nervous.
The feminist Dale Spender also believed the dominance approach. She once said:
"The crux of our difficulties lies in being able to identify and transform the rules which govern our behavior and which bring patriarchal order into existence. Yet the tools we have for doing this are part of that patriarchal order. While we can modify, we must none the less use the only language, the only classification scheme which is at our disposal. We must use it in a way that is acceptable and meaningful. But that very language and the conditions for its use in turn structure a patriarchal order."
Under the dominance theory, in a gender-neutral area, males and females should use language in the same way.
The feminist Dale Spender also believed the dominance approach. She once said:
"The crux of our difficulties lies in being able to identify and transform the rules which govern our behavior and which bring patriarchal order into existence. Yet the tools we have for doing this are part of that patriarchal order. While we can modify, we must none the less use the only language, the only classification scheme which is at our disposal. We must use it in a way that is acceptable and meaningful. But that very language and the conditions for its use in turn structure a patriarchal order."
Under the dominance theory, in a gender-neutral area, males and females should use language in the same way.
STEREOTYPES
Gender stereotypes fall into two categories:
Women are:
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Men are:
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Take a look at this extract from a Mills and Boon novel:
'As Holly went upstairs to check on her sister, who was staying at Gregory’s while their parents had taken the weekend off to visit a festival of flowers, she couldn’t still her tumbling thoughts.'
The above extract is very stereotypical. The first thing to notice, is that Holly is checking on her sister -taking on a domesticated, caring role. Why doesn't Gregory check on her? She is also portrayed as weak and emotional: "couldn't still her tumbling thoughts" - she is unable to control her emotions.
'Hot anger trembled through her body.'
Here is another weak, emotional female. The syntax is particularly interesting. It uses the active voice for the emotion (subject, verb, object) and thus renders the female as a passive object. The verb choice 'trembled' is also interesting, considering that it is 'anger.' The weak female cannot even feel such an aggressive emotion properly; it has to be dulled down by a weak verb.
'As Holly went upstairs to check on her sister, who was staying at Gregory’s while their parents had taken the weekend off to visit a festival of flowers, she couldn’t still her tumbling thoughts.'
The above extract is very stereotypical. The first thing to notice, is that Holly is checking on her sister -taking on a domesticated, caring role. Why doesn't Gregory check on her? She is also portrayed as weak and emotional: "couldn't still her tumbling thoughts" - she is unable to control her emotions.
'Hot anger trembled through her body.'
Here is another weak, emotional female. The syntax is particularly interesting. It uses the active voice for the emotion (subject, verb, object) and thus renders the female as a passive object. The verb choice 'trembled' is also interesting, considering that it is 'anger.' The weak female cannot even feel such an aggressive emotion properly; it has to be dulled down by a weak verb.
Where does stereotyping come from?
Throughout history, it has been the male who has been the dominant sex. It wasn't until 1918 that females in the UK were allowed to vote. British history has always been patriarchal - ruled by men. They ran the government, the Church and everything else in the public sphere.
Because they set the rules, they dictated what women could and couldn't do. In fact, in Victorian times many books were published about the gender difference, stating what males and females could and could not do. It was believed that they fell into different spheres (domestic and public), that because of their biology, it was natural for women to be more caring and stay in the house, while men should be out, making a living.
These social constructs were very restraining for females, and perhaps lead to the 'sociable' stereotype. When females were locked in the house, their only way of communicating with the outside world was through holding 'tea parties' and other events.
Some interesting acts of Parliament:
These constructions have also naturally affected language in action. If we believe what Lakoff says about hedging - is it any surprise that women hedge, when they have been oppressed for centuries? Or that, when roles have been always seen as for male, females move more towards Received Pronunciation in a job interview than men?
Because they set the rules, they dictated what women could and couldn't do. In fact, in Victorian times many books were published about the gender difference, stating what males and females could and could not do. It was believed that they fell into different spheres (domestic and public), that because of their biology, it was natural for women to be more caring and stay in the house, while men should be out, making a living.
These social constructs were very restraining for females, and perhaps lead to the 'sociable' stereotype. When females were locked in the house, their only way of communicating with the outside world was through holding 'tea parties' and other events.
Some interesting acts of Parliament:
- 1553 : It was agreed that it was more natural for the man to come before the woman.
- 1746: John Kirkby wrote Eighty Grammatical Rules. Rule 21 said that the male gender was ‘more comprehensive’ than the female.
- 1850: Act of parliament was passed that stated that ‘he’ should be used for both sexes.
These constructions have also naturally affected language in action. If we believe what Lakoff says about hedging - is it any surprise that women hedge, when they have been oppressed for centuries? Or that, when roles have been always seen as for male, females move more towards Received Pronunciation in a job interview than men?
SEXISM
A Feminist Takedown of Robin Thicke, And Anyone Who Thinks There's Something "Blurry" About Sexism by Elizabeth Plank
If you have ears, you've heard the song "Blurred Lines." If you have eyes, you've seen the explicit video. If you have a mouth, you’ve had a conversation about it. Maybe it’s sexist? Maybe it’s kind of feminist? Hint: it’s not.
People calling the song offensive definitely have a strong case. After all, the song is about "liberating" a good girl by showing her that she actually wants ‘crazy wild sex’ that she isn’t actually asking for. The only thing that's worse than the lyrics? The video. It shows three naked women (sorry, some have flesh-toned thongs and the occasional shoes) prancing around three fully-dressed men — an image that's now become all too familiar in our media landscape.
So, let's recap. The lyrics are rapey, the video overtly objectifies women and the only people worthy of clothes are men. I'm sorry, why are we arguing about whether a video that pretty much defines sexism is sexist or not?
People calling the song offensive definitely have a strong case. After all, the song is about "liberating" a good girl by showing her that she actually wants ‘crazy wild sex’ that she isn’t actually asking for. The only thing that's worse than the lyrics? The video. It shows three naked women (sorry, some have flesh-toned thongs and the occasional shoes) prancing around three fully-dressed men — an image that's now become all too familiar in our media landscape.
So, let's recap. The lyrics are rapey, the video overtly objectifies women and the only people worthy of clothes are men. I'm sorry, why are we arguing about whether a video that pretty much defines sexism is sexist or not?
Lexical Asymmetry and SEMANTIC DEROGATION: Male words and their female equivalents are often unequal (asymmetrical) in their associations and connotations. Examples are: ‘spinster/bachelor’, ‘mistress/master’, ‘madam/sir.’
Man’ is sometimes used to refer specifically to males, but on other occasions, it is used generically to refer to the whole human race (as in ‘man is a primate). ‘Mankind’ is always a generic term. Generic ‘he:' The masculine pronoun ‘he’ is used generically (i.e. to refer to both males and females), as in the sentence ‘anyone can choose to vote in the election if he so wishes.’ Use of the neutral plural pronoun ‘they’ in such constructions was once common in English. However, prescriptivist grammarians of the 18th and 19th centuries have condemned it as incorrect. |
Terms for females are often MARKED by the addition of a suffix to the male term, which remains UNMARKED: ‘sculptor/sculptress’, ‘usher/usherette’.
Patronising terms for women include ‘babe’, ‘sweetheart’, ‘dear’ and ‘love,’ though these can be applied to men. There are several words that compare women to food. Examples: ‘crumpet,’ ‘tart,’ ‘sweetie’ and ‘honey.’ This suggests that the primary function of a woman is to be desired and 'consumed' by men. The Female Inanimate: This is the use of female pronouns (she, her) to refer to inanimate objects, such as cars and ships. Political correctness has risen in recent years to find the gender pairs and replace them with more gender-neutral terms: police officer, chair person, fire fighter, etc. It's hoped that over time, this will break down the ingrained connotations that 'fireman' and 'police man' are men's job, while 'dinner lady' is a female occupation. |
Derogative Terms: There are many negative terms of insult directed at women, often with no equivalent for males. Often, these words carry animalistic connotations, such as ‘cow, bitch’ and ‘dog’.
The insults for women also have many sexual connotations, such as ‘slut, whore’ and ‘slag’. Words denoting sexual promiscuity in men tend to be more positive: ‘stud’, ‘Casanova’ and ‘Don Juan.’ Placing the male word before the female in phrases such as ‘he or she’ and ‘his and hers’ or ‘male and female’, ‘sir or madam’, suggests an assumption that men are of higher status than women in society. Again, this convention was strengthened by grammarians of previous centuries who decreed that putting the male first was ‘natural’ and ‘proper.’ |
SEXISM IN ADVERTISEMENT
Read this interesting paper on SEXISM AND SEXUALITY in advertising, by Michael F. Jacobsen:
jacobsen.pdf | |
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